Top Ten Terpenes and their potential medicinal properties

• Terpenes are the chemicals which give all plants their smell and taste
• Terpenes, like cannabinoids, have shown potential therapeutic properties
• Here are our Top Ten Terpenes and the potential uses they may have in health care

Medical cannabis made national headlines in the UK last year. A lot of focus in the media was afforded to cannabinoids, the chemical compounds present in cannabis which is the main source of cannabis’ medicinal properties.

Cannabidiol (CBD) was given special attention, with the cannabinoid being fully legal and available to purchase without prescription.

Cannabinoids, however, are not the only therapeutic chemicals in the cannabis plant.

Introducing terpenes: the chemical which gives cannabis, and all plants, their distinct flavour and aroma.

Not only are terpenes responsible for cannabis’ smell and taste, they contribute to therapeutic effect cannabinoids have, working together to help potentially heal and protect the human body.

Terpenes are not psychoactive like THC, but do interact with THC and the other cannabinoids.

This relationship between phytocannabinoids and terpenes is known as the “entourage effect,” where all the individual cannabinoids (such as CBD and THC) work together with terpenes to increase the potential medical benefits cannabis can have.

Individually isolated terpenes have numerous benefits, but when they are combined with other terpenes and cannabinoids, the possibilities for medical preparations are vastly increased.

Here are our Top Ten terpenes:

Limonene

Limonene is one of the most common terpenes found in cannabis. It’s also found in citrus.

Research has shown Limonene to have potential anti-anxiety, anti-insomniac and even antibacterial properties.

Japanese researchers found that inhaling limonene vapour increases the levels of dopamine and serotonin in key regions of the brain associated with anxiety, depression, and OCD.

A recent study found that Limonene may even be able to be used in the treatment of breast cancer.

Another study found that due to its blood pressure increasing properties, Limonene “should be considered as a promising lipid lowering agent and antioxidant activities with blood pressure-lowering properties.”

Limonene is common in:

• Super Lemon Haze
• Durban Poison
• Jack Herer

Myrcene

Myrcene is the most common terpene found in cannabis. β-Myrcene is found in mango, hops, lemongrass, bay leaves, eucalyptus, among countless other plants.

It’s believed that this terpene is responsible for determining whether a strain is indica or sativa.

A cannabis testing facility, Steep Hill Labs, have suggested that strains low in myrcene (less than 0.5%) will be sativa, whereas those with over 0.5% myrcene are categorized as indica and typically deliver symptoms that include appetite stimulation and “couch lock.”

According to the laboratory:

“If a sample has over 0.5% myrcene, it will have indica, or “couchlock” effects.

“If a sample has less than 0.5% myrcene, it will have the soaring sativa effect. It is simply the amount of myrcene that is in the sample that dictates how [one] will be affected.”

Myrcene is actually one of the most widely used chemicals by the perfume industry.

Researchers at the University of Coimbra found that “myrcene has significant anti-inflammatory and anti-catabolic effects.”

A GW Pharmaceuticals study found “great promise” for myrcene in use for pain relief.

Researchers in Brazil found that myrcene has a variety of sedative effects in rodents, inducing sleep, reducing motor coordination and suppressing locomotor activity, indicating strains heavy in myrcene can be used as a sedative.

Interestingly, myrcene has been found to have increase the permeability of cell membranes, allowing THC to reach brain cells easier and quicker.

Strains heavy in myrcene include:

• White Widow
• Kush
• Skunk

Linalool

Linalool is probably most well-known for its lavender aroma.

One of Linalool’s most common uses is to reduce stress and anxiety, due to its sedative and soothing properties.

Japanese researchers were able to bring down elevated stress levels in the immune system in lab rats “near-normal” after allowing the rats to inhale linalool extract.

Strains high in linalool may be ideal for epileptic treatments.

Research published in Neurochemical Research found that:

“Psychopharmacological in vivo evaluation of Linalool showed that this compound has dose-dependent marked sedative effects at the Central Nervous System, including hypnotic, anticonvulsant and hypothermic properties.”

Research is now being conducted to investigate linalool’s potential use in cancer treatments.

Strains high in linalool include:

• LA Confidential
• Amnesia Haze
• Purple Kush

Humulene

Humulene (Beta-caryophyllene) is found in the essential oil of oregano, black pepper and clove, carrying a subtle woody, earthy aroma with spicy herbal notes.

While cannabis is more commonly associated with appetite simulation, due to humulene’s close biogenic relationship with caryophyllene, humulene is actually known to suppress hunger.

As caryophyllene is often associated with gut health, humulene can act as an appetite suppressant when highly present in cannabis.

A Brazilian study examined humulene’s systemic anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive properties, finding it may have great potential as an anti-inflammatory.

Research in Canada found humulene to have both anti-bacterial and gastro-protective properties.

Strains high in humulene include:

• Sour Diesel
• Girl Scout Cookies
• White Widow

Pinene

There are two structural isomers of pinene found in nature: α-pinene, found in pine (and most conifers) and rosemary, and β-pinene which naturally occurs in rosemary, parsley, and basil.

Studies have shown that pinene enhances memory and boosts learning by blocking a chemical called acetylcholinesterase from breaking down acetylcholine.

Acetylcholine is an important neurotransmitter that helps neurons relay signals related to attention, motivation, as well as memory and arousal. This neurotransmitter also facilitates the movements of skeletal muscles.

Like CBD, pinene is known for its acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity, which can potentially counteract the negative effects of THC, such as psychotic episodes, by allowing brain cells to communicate better with each other.

Strains high in pinene include:

• Jack Herer
• Blue Dream
• OG Kush

Borneol

Borneol is most commonly found in absinthe, cinnamon, and rosemary, carrying a has a fresh, minty camphor aroma.

The terpene has been used a traditional Chinese medicine dating back centuries, commonly used in acupuncture or as part of oral or skin treatments.

Research has shown borneol to help reduce inflammation. Results from a study which investigated cell-culture models of gingivitis suggest that borneol could be added to medicated mouthwash in order to ease conditions such as red gums or tonsilitis.

Chinese and American researchers found that borneol applied topically could be used to sooth aching muscles and joints, acting as a topical pain reliever.

A 2014 study found borneol could potentially reduce the risk of blood clots.

Perhaps most interestingly, borneol is now being investigated as an aid to the absorption of medical compounds, including those that treat cancer.

While borneol doesn’t kill cancer cells, it helps other molecules get to them and cause them to self-destruct.

Strains high in borneol include:

• Most varieties of haze

Eucalyptol

Eucalyptol is the terpene responsible for the pleasurable and cooling scents found within eucalyptus, mint and rosemary.

A 2012 study tested eucalyptol (cineol)’s effect on memory and mood, with a particular interest in whether the terpene could be used to treat Alzheimer’s.

A positive correlation was found between the number of correct answers and higher blood levels of eucalyptol, with the researchers concluding that the terpene may help contribute towards improved cognition, possibly easing some symptoms experienced with the onset of Alzheimer’s disease.

Research in Iran revealed the terpene to be effective against certain strains of bacteria, indicating its potency as an antibacterial.

Eucalyptol may also serve as an effective therapeutic when it comes to asthma.

Research published in the Journal of Asthma in 2012, found that eucalyptol can aid improvement in lung function, even showing potential to reduce dyspnea in asthma patients.

Strains high in eucalyptol include:

• Headband
• Bubba Kush
• Girl Scout Cookies
• Super Silver Haze

Delta-3 Carene

Delta-3 carene is beholden to a sweet and earthy aroma with piney undertones, most commonly known as the main component of turpentine.

 

Commonly found in the resin of rosemary, pine, and cedar, carene is widely considered a natural antihistamine. Delta-3 carene contains a subtle lemon flavour.

This terpene may actually be the element in cannabis which causes users “cotton mouth” and redness in the eyes.

Aside from clearly identifying cannabis users, Delat-3 carene may also be an effective contributor towards combating fibromyalgia, arthritis, and osteoporosis, as well as possibly promoting memory retention and mental sharpness.

Strains high in Delta-3 carene include:

• Haze (Super Silver, Super Lemon)
• Skunk

Pulegone

Pulegone can primarily be found in mint species, camphor, and rosemary. In cannabis, the terpene count of pulegone is normally at a far lower concentration than other terpenes.

 

In very high concentrations, pulegone can actually have negative effects on the body, particularly on the liver.

Research has found Pulegone to be a good acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, preventing the action of the protein which destroys acetylcholine.

Acetylcholine is an important chemical needed to store memories in the brain. Without it, it is impossible to form and retain new memories.

Like pinene and CBD, pulegone can help prevent some of the negative side effects of cannabis, such as THC-induced memory loss.

No strains of cannabis are high in pulegone due to its potential carcinogenic properties in high doses.

Terpineol

Terpineol occurs naturally in over 150 plants, with hints of a lilac aroma, often found in cosmetics and perfumes.

Research has shown that due to terpineol’s anticholinergic properties, it a promising candidate drug for the treatment of diarrheal diseases.

Most importantly, a-Terpineol, a component of terpineol, has shown promise anti-cancer properties, and “could be used in the prevention or even treatment of cancer, as it was found that α-T demonstrated a potential antioxidant capacity effect against different human cancer cell lines (breast, lung, prostate, ovarian and leukemia).”

Strains high in terpineol include:

• Jack Herer
• Girl Scout Cookies
• White Widow
• OG Kush

References and further Reading

World’s largest pharmaceutical cannabis producer moving to UK in 2019

• Pharmaceutical company Canopy Growth is world’s largest producer of medical cannabis products
• Canopy is hoping to conduct its first clinical trial in Britain mid-2019
• Alcohol manufactures have invested heavily in Canopy

Canopy Growth, the world’s largest cannabis company is investing heavily in the emerging British medical cannabis market.

The move to Britain comes after the Conservative-led government changed laws partially legalising medical cannabis.

The Canadian grower of cannabis managed to generate sales of £47m last year alone. Canopy has spent years researching cannabinoid profiles of cannabis, cultivating specific strains, with a variety of different strengths and terpene profiles.

In an interview with The Telegraph, Mark Ware, Canopy’s chief medical officer, explained that a new UK subsidiary, Spectrum Biomedical, would begin importing and distributing cannabis to pharmacies at the request of physicians in the first half of 2019.

Discussing the expansion, Ware said:

“We take cannabis very seriously indeed as a medicine.

“We have as close to a pharmaceutical-grade product as we can without the approval.”

Cannabis’ strength can be controlled by altering the ratios of THC, CBD and the 100s of other cannabinoids present in cannabis.

Canopy Growth processes cannabis plants into pharmaceutical oils, gel capsules and even dried raw flowers.

To help British doctors who are unfamiliar with the Endocannabinoid System and cannabinoids as a medication, Spectrum will offer doctors a colour-coded chart to help allocate the “right” products for their patients, with each shade representing a different ratio of THC to CBD.

Mr Ware explained that charts like this help doctors who are new to medical cannabis traverse navigate the complex structure of the herbal plant:

“Cannabis is very complex, it is used for a huge range of different conditions, such as chronic pain, anxiety, sleeplessness and nausea.

“The colour-coding is a way to simplify the complexity of the plant for patients.”

“The UK’s change in the law around medicinal cannabis use is an opportunity to build research programmes here and support patient access.”
– Cosmo Feilding, managing director of  Beckley Canopy Therapeutics and Spectrum Biomedical

Canopy is also hoping to begin its first clinical trial in the UK in the second quarter of 2019.

The trial will investigate how effective cannabis is as a form of pain relief for cancer patients.

The study is being carried out in partnership with the Beckley Foundation, which supports research into banned substances, under a joint venture called Beckley Canopy Therapeutics.

Private investors donated £7.4m to Beckley Canopy Therapeutics earlier this year, including Richard Reed, the founder of Innocent smoothies, and British billionaire Jim Mellon.

Cosmo Feilding, managing director of both Beckley Canopy Therapeutics and Spectrum Biomedical, hopes to raise a further £7m to £15m next year:

“The big cannabis-producing companies recognise the need to provide more clinical evidence as they move towards being more pharma-focused and we will see this ramp-up, with more clinical trials over the next few years.

“I think the global medicinal cannabis market will prove much bigger than the recreational use market.”

He added that he has ambitions to run further clinical trials in Britain:

“The UK’s change in the law around medicinal cannabis use is an opportunity to build research programmes here and support patient access.

“The Canadian experience teaches us it’s a slow process. This is a drug that has a lot of stigma and is misunderstood, so there is anxiety among doctors, regulators, patients and policy makers.

“But in the end, it’s a family of compounds that have tremendous therapeutic potential.”

Corona brewer, Constellation, invested £32.bn in Canopy Growth earlier this year, taking its stake to 38%.

References and further Reading

“Massive upsurge” in parents demanding access to medical cannabis for epileptic children

• Over 500,000 people in the UK have epilepsy
• 20,000 of those are children who don’t respond to pharmaceutical medication
• Demand for access to medical cannabis containing THC is rising, but leading doctors claim “not enough evidence” it works

Despite cannabis being legalised for medical purposes in the UK on Nov 1, parents of severely ill children are still unable to get access, with leading doctors citing not enough evidence that THC can help.

There are over 20,000 children in the UK who suffer epilepsy that doesn’t respond to traditional pharmaceutical medications, leading parents to demand access to medical cannabis.

Paediatricians across the UK are reportedly seeing a “massive upsurge” in the number of parents demanding that cannabinoid medication containing THC be prescribed to their epileptic children.

According to the Mail Online, hundreds of parents contacted doctors following the high-profile cases of Billy Caldwell and Alfie Dingle. Conservatives ministers changed the law on prescribing THC for children with intractable epilepsy after the children’s cases went viral in British news.

Both brave children have been prescribed cannabinoid medication containing both Cannabidiol (CBD), a non-psychoactive compound, as well as small amounts of the Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), the psychoactive compound.

Leading paediatricians now claim that they are ‘horrified’ that so many parents now see cannabis as the only hope for helping their children.

Speaking to the Mail Online, D.r Joseph Symonds, a paediatrician at Glasgow’s Royal Hospital for Children, said:

‘We have seen a massive upsurge in the number of parents asking for cannabis, and specifically cannabis with THC, because of the media interest around the children who have responded well to it.

“But the fact remains that while CBD products have medical benefits, there is just not enough evidence to say that THC cannabis will help a child’s epilepsy.

“I can usually talk patients round and explain the dangers but there’s a minority of people who will just go and buy the drug online anyway.”

Of the 2,000 child patients Dr. Symonds treats at his clinic every year, he claims that more than 1,600 of their parents have asked him to prescribe cannabis.

After meeting with a ‘dozen’ of his paediatrician colleagues, they all agreed that there has been an exponential rise in the number of patients asking for cannabis prescriptions.

He also claimed that the “media storm” surrounding medical cannabis was actually damaging the relationship he has with his patients:

“It’s important to have a good therapeutic relationship with your patients and agree what the best way forward is.

“If they come to you saying they want cannabis and you have to say ‘Actually, I don’t really want to prescribe your child this because we don’t know whether it’s harmful or not and we don’t know whether it helps or not’, that has potential to damage that relationship.’

“’Every parent whose child has epilepsy is going to ask themselves what they can do to help. And the one thing they will have heard about is cannabis.

“Compounds derived from cannabis should be treated like any other medicine: investigated rigorously and when proven to be safe, efficacious and cost-effective, prescribed correctly.”

Both the Home Office and the Department of Health are reportedly now deciding which doctors will be allowed to prescribe cannabis products. For now, doctors who want to do so must apply to an independent panel for approval.

“But the fact remains that while CBD products have medical benefits, there is just not enough evidence to say that THC cannabis will help a child’s epilepsy.“
– Dr. Joseph Symonds, paediatrician at Glasgow’s Royal Hospital for Children

Is Dr. Symonds right to have reservations about medical cannabis?

Despite his claims that there “is not enough evidence” to support the argument for using cannabinoids to treat intractable epilepsy, a number of significant studies have been recently published.

This includes research from GW Pharmaceutical, a British based pharmaceutical company which grows cannabis in the UK.

Their current study on their own CBD medication, Epidolex, recently passed the second positive phase 3 for patients with Dravet Syndrome (a severe form of epilepsy).

According to their press release:

“In this trial, Epidiolex, when added to the patient’s current treatment, achieved the primary endpoint of reduction in convulsive seizures for both dose levels (10 mg/kg per day and 20 mg/kg per day) with high statistical significance compared to placebo.

“Both Epidiolex doses also demonstrated statistically significant improvements on all key secondary endpoints.”

Researchers in New York and Reading (UK) searched for peer-reviewed, primary literature using a PubMed search on cannabis treatments for epilepsy, to see if there was a sufficient quantity of high quality research to support claims that cannabis can be used effectively for epilepsy treatments.

Studies were evaluated based on their scientific rigor and use of physiologically relevant drug concentrations to in vitro studies.

The researchers found that:

“…the evidence describing the effects of major plant cannabinoids that do not act as CBR ligands, most notably cannabidiol and cannabidavarin, exerts consistently beneficial therapeutic effects in preclinical models of seizures, epilepsy, epileptogenesis, and neuroprotection, consistent with emerging human clinical trial results.”

If leading research is finding that cannabis can indeed be safely administered, with greater success than pharmaceutical medications, why are leading paediatricians voicing such strong opposition to prescribing desperate parents cannabis for their children?

If parents in America, Spain and Holland can legally access medical cannabis treatments, why are parents in the UK being denied?

Is it time that our paediatricians listen to their patients, rather than force dangerous, addictive pharmaceutical medication on their children?

Hemp legalised in America after Trump signs 2018 Farm Bill into law

• The 2018 Farm Bill passed the US Senate by an 87-to-13 margin and the House by a 369-to-47 margin.
• Growing and producing hemp will now be federally legal, easier and cheaper to grow

• The Farm Bill removes hemp-derived products (AKA CBD) from Schedule I status
• CBD produced from cannabis (higher than 0.3% THC) remains Schedule 1

• Cannabis plants must contain less than 0.3% THC to be classified as hemp
• Banks and payment processors can now service the hemp industry

The 2018 Farm Bill which overwhelmingly passed in the U.S. Senate and House, was signed into law by President Trump on Thursday.

The Bill removes Hemp and by-products (AKA CBD products) from Schedule 1 Status. The Department of Justice will no longer be responsible for hemp, growers will now have to submit cultivation plans to the US Department of Agriculture (USDA).

There are still strict regulations applying to those growing industrial hemp.

While section 12619 of the Farm Bill removes hemp-derived products (CBD) from its Schedule I status under the Controlled Substances Act, the legislation does not legalise CBD generally.

Cannabis plants must contain less than 0.3% THC to be classified as hemp (0.1% higher than in the UK). “Cannabusiness” lawyer Steve Schain, from Hoban Law Group, highlighted these key points from the Farm Bill regarding hemp:

• Help research will be allowed for pharmaceutical uses as well as for health, wellness and general nutrition, opening the doors for much more testing
• Banks and payment processors or credit card companies can now service the hemp industry
• Hemp farmers will be allowed to buy crop insurance for the first time
• Investment and capital infusion is allowed in both hemp oil and fibrous hemp businesses (clothes, etc).
• Hemp and hemp products can now be traded and carried across State borders
• Convicted felons can join the industry 10 years after the bill passes
• Hemp futures can be traded for the first time, locking in prices for farmers

Chief executive of Calyx Peak, an American multi-state cannabis grower, Ed Schmults, believes that the new law could help bring down the price of CBD for both producers and consumers:

“Hemp offers a lower cost option for CBD, hemp is easier to grow than cannabis.”

“The significance of this law change should not be underemphasized.“
– Paul Armentano, NORML Deputy Director

Discussing the Bill’s provisions for CBD, John Hudak from the Brookings Institute, explained how the Farm Bill is unlikely to fully legalise the non-psychoactive cannabinoid (for now anyway):

“It is true that section 12619 of the Farm Bill removes hemp-derived products from its Schedule I status under the Controlled Substances Act, but the legislation does not legalize CBD generally.

“As I have noted elsewhere on this blog CBD generally remains a Schedule I substance under federal law.

“The Farm Bill ensures that any cannabinoid — a set of chemical compounds found in the cannabis plant — that is derived from hemp will be legal, if and only if that hemp is produced in a manner consistent with the Farm Bill, associated federal regulations, association state regulations, and by a licensed grower.

“All other cannabinoids, produced in any other setting, remain a Schedule I substance under federal law and are thus illegal. (The one exception is pharmaceutical-grade CBD products that have been approved by FDA, which currently includes one drug: GW Pharmaceutical’s Epidiolex.)”

Despite hemp and hemp-derived products being removed from Schedule 1, CBD from cannabis remains banned.

The developments also mean CBD infused food and drinks could be hitting American shelves in the near future, but currently CBD remains a pharmaceutical ingredient.

In a statement regarding the 2018 Farm Bill, FDA Commissioner Scott Gottlieb clarified that CBD is currently only approved for use in certain drugs. CBD can relax users but doesn’t get them high.

The FDA has said it will look into whether it could allow the use of a drug ingredient in food, holding a public meeting “in the near future” to determine next steps.

For now, the FDA will continue to stop companies from marketing CBD as a drug or disease-thwarting dietary supplement without vetting and approval by the agency, the statement said.

Coca-Cola released a statement saying they will wait to market CBD drinks after the rules are clear.

NORML Deputy Director, Paul Armentano, released a press release describing the Bill’s provisions as a significant step in the history of cannabis in the USA:

“The significance of this law change should not be underemphasized.

“This law marks the first change in the federal classification of the cannabis plant since it was initially classified as a schedule I controlled substance by Congress in 1970, and paves the way for the first federally-sanctioned commercial hemp grows since World War II.”

References and further Reading